sexual aggression

` Gender Ideologies and Tolerance of Sexual Assault


	Violence among intmates entails numerous types of abusiveness--sexual harassment, emotional/ psychological violence, verbal violence, physical violence, and sexual assault. This project involves two different studies of students' attitudes toward sexual aggression. You will examine, broadly speaking, people's tolerance of sexual aggression and, by consequence, their legitimatization of sexual assault.

Perhaps the most perplexing thing about trying to study such horrible crimes as sexual assault and rape is the fact that one single definition of the act is neither accepted nor applied by everybody at all times. Although rape can be defined as an invasion of the body by force and/or a degrading and hostile act of violence intended to humiliate (Brownmiller, 1975), there remains a societal-wide uncertainty about the definition of rape. Muehlenhard, Powch, Phelps, and Giusti (1992) describe how definitions vary along dimensions such as the specified sexual behaviors, the criteria for establishing nonconsent, the individuals involved, and whose perspective is specified. This lack of accord surfaced when rape was fully reconceptualized with the feminist movement of the 1960’s and 1970’s. Sexual assault and rape were disconnected from the perpetrator and images of his uncontrollable pathological impulses. Researchers began to investigate the victim’s experience of a violent act. Rape became understood as a brutal form of personal domination and a form of social control that reinforces women’s already subordinate role to men (Donat & D’Emilio, 1992). Date rapists, husbands who sexually assault their wives, and the men who sexually exploit women in the workplace are no longer viewed as the atypical “perverts” or “deviants” who stepped outside the boundaries of masculinity. Instead, these men are recognized as conforming to societal norms permitting sexual coercion (Baron, Straus, & Jaffee, 1988; Fitzgerald, 1993; Scher & Stevens, 1987; Taubman, 1986).

The issue of violence among unmarried intimates is very prevalent, disturbing, and political. Some students in class could well have been previously assaulted or raped, so as a group, we must not belittle this issue. What we assess is the way that personal experience is also socially constructed. Studies of college undergraduates show that at least one-sixth, perhaps as many as one-half of the students have been victims of some form of sexual aggression while dating (Goodman, Koss, Fitzgerald, Russo, & Keita, 1993). One in three men report that they have been sexually coercive.

The group presentation/ discussion is designed for you to familiarize the rest of the students about American attitudes toward sexual aggression and rape, undergraduates' beliefs about sexual aggression and victimization, and the way the experimental method and survey research produce different information. The class discussion should have two central goals. One objective is to have the entire class come to better understand college students' attitudes toward and beliefs about sexual aggression (e.g., sexual harassment, date rape). Each of you will do some library research. When reading earlier studies to help prepare your class presentation, pay attention to the extent to which researchers find stereotypes affirmed rather than refuted. The other objective is to demonstrate by example two research methods and their data collection strategies. The two research methods you will be using are quasi-experimental and survey research. In sum, members of this research team become responsible for informing the class about some of the prior research that has studied sexual aggression and for showing the class the results of your own use of research using structured interviews and a quasi-experiment in a naturalistic setting.

For the class presentation, two research groups present their research findings, both the library research and the statistical patterns that characterize students' attitudes. Each group investigates the issue of gender ideology and tolerance of deviance with a slightly different research project. One research group will discuss whether or not the aspects of the immediate social context (e.g., the assualt taking place in John's v. Mary's room) shape people's perception of whether or not an assault occured. The other researtch group examines the relationship between endorsement of a traditional gender ideology and agreement with rape myths. The question addressed is whether or not endorsement of a traditional gender ideology results in a tolerance of rape.

Opinions About Men's and Women's Sexual Behavior

Please read the following paragraph about a hypothetical couple, John and Mary. After reading the paragraph, please answer each question below it. We are interested in your own feelings and opinions. Sometimes when people complete attitude questions, they try to "look good" because they think there are right and wrong answers. There are no right/wrong opinions, so please report only how you feel and what you think. Thank you.

"John and Mary are in a sociology class together and talk with each other occasionally before and after class. They also sit near one another in the class. After class one day, John and Mary were talking and Mary mentioned that she had no plans for the weekend. She suggested she was looking forward to a quiet Saturday. John decided to ask Mary out for Saturday night. She accepted. On Saturday, they first went to a movie, and then to a comfortable but not very expensive restaurant for a burger. During dinner they talked and began disclosing more personal information about themselves. In many ways, John and Mary were mutually attracted to one another. After dinner, they went to John's apartment, made coffee, and talked. They had been sitting on his sofa for about 5 minutes when John kissed Mary. She responded to his kiss, and they kissed passionately. At this point, John was aroused and made a sexual advance. Mary told John to stop. Aroused, John persisted."

Do you feel Mary should have expected John's behavior?

Do you feel Mary should have expected John's behavior?

How responsible is Mary for John's sexual advances?

Do you feel John's sexual advances had become unwanted?

Do you think Mary should willing to consent to John's expectations for sexual intercourse?

If John persisted and had sexual intercourse with Mary against her will, do you think he should be charged with assault?

If John persisted and had sexual intercourse with Mary against her will, do you think he should be charged with rape?

Opinions About Men's and Women's Sexual Behavior

"John and Mary are in a sociology class together and talk with each other occasionally before and after class. They also sit near one another in the class. After class one day, John and Mary were talking and Mary mentioned that she had no plans for the weekend. She suggested she was looking forward to a quiet Saturday. John decided to ask Mary out for Saturday night. She accepted. On Saturday, they first went to a movie, and then to a comfortable but not very expensive restaurant for a burger. During dinner they talked and began disclosing more personal information about themselves. In many ways, John and Mary were mutually attracted to one another. After dinner, they went to Mary's apartment, made coffee, and talked. They had been sitting on his sofa for about 5 minutes when John kissed Mary. She responded to his kiss, and they kissed passionately. At this point, John was aroused and made a sexual advance. Mary told John to stop. Aroused, John persisted."

Do you feel Mary should have expected John's behavior?

Do you feel Mary should have expected John's behavior?

How responsible is Mary for John's sexual advances?

Do you feel John's sexual advances had become unwanted?

Do you think Mary should willing to consent to John's expectations for sexual intercourse?

If John persisted and had sexual intercourse with Mary against her will, do you think he should be charged with assault?

If John persisted and had sexual intercourse with Mary against her will, do you think he should be charged with rape?

Attitudes Toward Men and Women and Their Sexual Behavior

INTERVIEWER: Inform the person you interview that you are conducting a brief survey on Holy Cross students' attitudes toward men's and women's sexual behaviors.

Next, assure your interviews both CONFIDENTIALITY and ANONYMITY (and protect their anonymity!!).

Next, let the subject know that you will be asking their opinions on a number of different issues. SAY "Sometimes when people complete attitude questions, they try to "look good" because they think there are right and wrong answers. There are no right/wrong opinion, so please report only how you truly feel and what you think."

Finally, hand the subject the response care, read each question, and ask them to respond on the 7-point scale.

Strongly                       Strongly
   Agree                         Disagree

    1    2    3    4    5    6    7 1. A woman should be a virgin when she marries.

    1    2    3    4    5    6    7
2. No matter how a woman acts, she never deserves to be forced to have sex when she doesn't want to.

    1    2    3    4    5    6    7
3. In choosing who to go out with, looks are more important than brains.

    1    2    3    4    5    6    7
4. A woman who goes to the home or apartment of a man on their first date implies that she is willing to have sex.

    1    2    3    4    5    6    7
5. It is all right for a women to ask a man out, even if he has never asked her out.

    1    2    3    4    5    6    7
6. A woman has the right to say "no" to sex, even if the man thought she wanted it.

    1    2    3    4    5    6    7
7. Men have a biologically stronger sex drive than women.

    1    2    3    4    5    6    7
8. A healthy woman can successfully resist a man who's trying to force sex on her, is she really wants to.

    1    2    3    4    5    6    7
9. If a woman is making out and she lets things get out of hand, its her own fault if her partner forces sex on her.

    1    2    3    4    5    6    7
10. Murder and kidnapping are much more serious crimes than rape.

    1    2    3    4    5    6     7
11. Because they are married, wives should not be allowed to charge their husbands with rape.

Gender: [ ] male [ ] female

Class: [ ] freshman [ ] sophomore [ ] junior [ ] senior

Selected References

Abbey, A., Cozzarelli, C., McLaughlin, K., & Harnish, R. J. (1987). The effects of clothing and dyad sex composition on perceptions of sexual intent. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17, 108-126.

Bostwick, T. D., & DeLucia, J. L. (1992). Effects of gender and specific dating behaviors on perceptions of sex willingness and date rape. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 11, 14-25.

Brady, E. C., Chrisler, J. C., Hosdale, D. C., Osowiecki, D. M. et al. (1991). Date rape: Expectations, avoidance strategies, and attitudes toward victims. Journal of Social Psychology, 131, 427-429.

Bunting, A. B., & Reeves, J. B. (1983). Perceived male sex orientation and beliefs about rape. Deviant Behavior, 4, 281-295.

Burgess, A. W., & Holmstrom, L. L. (1974). Rape trauma syndrome. American Journal of Psychiatry, 131, 981-986.

Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 217-230.

Byers, E. S., & Wilson, P. (1985). Accuracy of women's expectations regarding men's responses to refusals of sexual advances in dating situations. International Journal of Women's Studies, 8, 376-387.

Campbell, J. C. (1989). The dark consequences of marital rape. American Journal of Nursing, 89, 946-949.

Check, J., & Malamuth, N. M. (1983). Sex role stereotyping and reactions to deplictions of stranger versus acquaintance rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 344-356.

Cornett, M. B., & Shuntich, R. (1991). Sexual aggression: Perceptions of its likelihood of occurring and some correlates of self-admitted perpetuation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 73, 499-507.

Donat, P., & D’Emilio, J. (1992). A feminist redefinition of rape and sexual assault: Historical foundations and change. Journal of Social Issues, 48 (1), 9-22.

Finkelhor, D., & Yllo, K. (1983). Rape in marriage: a sociological view. In Gelles, R. J., Hotaling, G. T., & Straus, M. A. (eds.), The dark side of families: Current family violence research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Finkelhor, D., & Yllo, K. (1985). License to rape: The sexual abuse of wives. New York: Holt, Rinehardt.

George, L. K., Winfield, I., & Blazer, D. G. (1992). Sociocultural factors in sexual assault: Comparison of two representative samples of women. Journal of Social Issues, 48 (1), 105-125.

Gidycz, C. A., & Koss, M. P. (1990). A comparison of group and individual sexual assault victims. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14, 325-342.

Gilbert, B. J., Heesacker, M., & Gannon, L. J. (1991). Changing the sexual aggression-supportive attitudes of men: A psychoeducational intervention. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 197-203.

Good, G. E., Heppner, J. J., Hillenbrand-Gunn, T., & Wang, L. (1995). Sexual and psychological violence: An exploratory study of predictors in college men. Journal of Men’s Studies, 4, 59-71.

Goodman, L. A., Koss, M. P., Fitzgerald, L., Russo, N. F., & Keita, G. P. (1993). Male violence against women: Current research and future directions. American Psychologist, 48, 1054-1058.

Grauerholz, E. (1989). Sexual harassment of women professors by students: Exploring the dynamics of power, authority, and gender in a university setting. Sex Roles, 21, 789-801.

Hall, E. R., Howard, J. A., & Boezio, S. L. (1986). Tolerance of rape: a sexist or antisocial attitude. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 10, 101-118.

Hamilton, M., & Yee, J. (1990). Rape knowledge and propensity to rape. Journal of Research in Personality, 24, 111-122.

Jenkins, M. J., & Dambrot, F. H. (1987). The attribution of date rape: observer's attitudes and sexual experiences and the dating situation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17, 875-895.

Jones, M.E., Russell, R.L., & Bryant F.B. (1998). The structure of rape attitudes for men and women: A three- factor model. Journal of Research in Personality, 32, 331-350.

Kirpatrick, C., & Kanin, E. J. (1957). Male sex aggression on a university campus. American Sociological Review, 22, 52-58.

Kleinke, C. L., & Meyer, C. (1990). Evaluation of rape victim by men and women with high and low belief in a just world. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14, 343-353.

Koss, M. P. (1985). The hidden rape victim: personality, attitudinal and situational characteristics. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 193-212.

Koss, M. P., Gidycz, C. A., & Wisniewski, N. (1987). The scope of rape: incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 162-170.

Kowalski, R. M. (1992). Nonverbal behaviors and perceptions of sexual intentions: Effects of sexual connotativeness, verbal response, and rape outcome. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 13, 427-445.

Kurz, D. (1989). Social science perspectives on wife abuse: current debates and future directions. Gender and Society, 3, 489-505.

Levin-Macombie, J., & Koss, M. P. (1986). Acquaintance rape: effective avoidance strategies. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 10, 311-319.

Levine, E. M., & Kanin, E. J. (1987). Sexual violence among dates and acquaintances: Trends and their implications for marriage and family. Journal of Family Violence, 2, 55-65.

Lewin, M. (1985). Unwanted intercourse: the difficulty of saying no. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 184-192.

Linz, D. G., Donnerstein, E., & Penrod, S. (1988). Effects of long-term exposure to violent and sexually degrading depictions of women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 758-768.

Luddy, J. G., & Thompson, E. H. (1997). Masculinities and violence: A fatherson comparison of gender traditionality and perceptions of heterosexual rape. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 462–477.

Malamuth, N. M. (1986). Predictors of naturalistic sexual aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 953-962.

Mills, C. S., & Granoff, B. J. (1992). Date and acquaintance rape among a sample of college students. Social Work, 37, 504-509.

Muehlenhard, C. L. (1988). Misinterpreted dating behaviors and the risk of date rape. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 6, 20-37.

Muehlenhad, C. L., Friedman, D. E., & Thomas, C. M. (1985). Is date rape justifiable? The effects of dating activity, who initiated, who paid, and men's attitudes toward women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 297-309.

Muehlenhard, C. L., & Hollabaugh, L. C. (1988). Do women sometimes say no when they mean yes? The prevalence and correlates of women's token resistance to sex. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 872-879.

Muehlenhard, C. L., Powch, I. G., Phelps, J. L., & Giusti, L. M. (1992). Definitions of rape: Scientific and political implications. Journal of Social Issues, 48 (Spring), 23-44.

Norris, J., & Cubbins, L. A. (1992). Dating, drinking, and rape: Effects of victim's and assailant's alcohol consumption on judgments of their behavior and traits. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 16, 179-191.

Payne, D.L., Lonsway, K.A., & Fitzgerald, L.F. (1998). Rape myth acceptance: Exploration of its structure and its measurement using the IRMA scale. Journal of Research in Personality, 32, 27-68.

Porter, J. F., & Critelli, J. W. (1992). Measurement of sexual aggression in college men: A methodological analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 21, 525-542.

Rosenthal, E. H., Heesacker, M., & Neimeyer, G. J. (1995). Changing the rape-supportive attitudes of traditional and nontraditional male and female college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42, 171-177.

Russell, D. E. H. (1982). Rape in marriage. New York: Macmillan.

Schult, D. G., & Schneider, L. J. (1991). The role of sexual provocativeness, rape history, and observer gender in perceptions of blame in sexual assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 6, 94-101.

Shields, N. M., & Hanneke, C. R. (1983). Battered wives' reactions to marital rape. In Gelles, R. J., Hotaling, G.T., & Straus, M. A. (eds.), The dark side of families: Current family violence research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Shotland, R. L., & Goodstein, L. (1992). Sexual precedence reduces the perceived legitimacy of sexual refusal: An examination of attributions concerning date rape and consensual sex. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 756-764.

Sigler, R. T. (1987). The criminalization of forced marital intercourse. Marriage and Family Review, 12, 71-85.

Simonson, K., & Subich, L.M. (1999). Rape perceptions as a function of gender-role traditionality and victim-perpetrator association. Sex Roles, 40, 617-634.

Struckman-Johnson, C., & Struckman-Johnson, D. (1992). Acceptance of male rape myths among college men and women. Sex Roles, 27, 85-100.

Sundberg, S. L., Barbaree, H. E., & Marshall, W. L. (1991). Victim blame and the disinhibition of sexual arousal to rape vignettes. Violence and Victims, 6, 103-120.

Syzmanski, L. A., Devlin, A. S., Chrisler, J. C., & Vyse, S. A. (1993). Gender role and attitudes toward rape in male and female college students. Sex Roles, 29, 37-57.

Taubman, S. (1986). Beyond the bravado: Sex roles and the exploitative male. Social Work, 31, 12-18.

Tetreault, P.A., & Barnett, M. A. (1987). Reactions to stranger and acquaintance rape. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 353-358.

Truman, D. M., Tokar, D. M., & Fischer, A. R. (1996). Dimensions of masculinity: Relations to date rape supportive attitudes and sexual aggression in dating situations. Journal of Counseling & Development, 74, 555-562.

Weisbuch, M., Beal, D., & O’Neil, E.C. (1999). How masculine ought I be? Men’s masculinity and aggression. Sex Roles, 40, 583-592.

Williams, L. (1984). The classic rape: when do victims report? Social Problems, 31, 459-467.

Workman, J. E., & Freeburg, E. W. (1999). An examination of date rape, victim dress, and perceiver variables within the context of attribution theory. Sex Roles, 41, 261-277.

We have most of the journals in HC’s collection. There are many other journal articles available. Go to the HC’s library web-page for electronic resources (http://www.holycross.edu/departments/library/website/online.htm) and use PsycINFO to locate relevant articles. You will need to physically enter the library.

Abbey, A., Cozzarelli, C., McLaughlin, K., & Harnish, R. J. (1987). The effects of clothing and dyad sex composition on perceptions of sexual intent. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17, 108-126.

Bostwick, T. D., & DeLucia, J. L. (1992). Effects of gender and specific dating behaviors on perceptions of sex willingness and date rape. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 11, 14-25.

Brady, E. C., Chrisler, J. C., Hosdale, D. C., Osowiecki, D. M. et al. (1991). Date rape: Expectations, avoidance strategies, and attitudes toward victims. Journal of Social Psychology, 131, 427-429.

Bunting, A. B., & Reeves, J. B. (1983). Perceived male sex orientation and beliefs about rape. Deviant Behavior, 4, 281-295.

Burgess, A. W., & Holmstrom, L. L. (1974). Rape trauma syndrome. American Journal of Psychiatry, 131, 981-986.

Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 217-230.

Byers, E. S., & Wilson, P. (1985). Accuracy of women's expectations regarding men's responses to refusals of sexual advances in dating situations. International Journal of Women's Studies, 8, 376-387.

Campbell, J. C. (1989). The dark consequences of marital rape. American Journal of Nursing, 89, 946-949.

Check, J., & Malamuth, N. M. (1983). Sex role stereotyping and reactions to deplictions of stranger versus acquaintance rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 344-356.

Cornett, M. B., & Shuntich, R. (1991). Sexual aggression: Perceptions of its likelihood of occurring and some correlates of self-admitted perpetuation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 73, 499-507.

Donat, P., & D’Emilio, J. (1992). A feminist redefinition of rape and sexual assault: Historical foundations and change. Journal of Social Issues, 48 (1), 9-22.

Finkelhor, D., & Yllo, K. (1983). Rape in marriage: a sociological view. In Gelles, R. J., Hotaling, G. T., & Straus, M. A. (eds.), The dark side of families: Current family violence research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Finkelhor, D., & Yllo, K. (1985). License to rape: The sexual abuse of wives. New York: Holt, Rinehardt.

George, L. K., Winfield, I., & Blazer, D. G. (1992). Sociocultural factors in sexual assault: Comparison of two representative samples of women. Journal of Social Issues, 48 (1), 105-125.

Gidycz, C. A., & Koss, M. P. (1990). A comparison of group and individual sexual assault victims. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14, 325-342.

Gilbert, B. J., Heesacker, M., & Gannon, L. J. (1991). Changing the sexual aggression-supportive attitudes of men: A psychoeducational intervention. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 197-203.

Good, G. E., Heppner, J. J., Hillenbrand-Gunn, T., & Wang, L. (1995). Sexual and psychological violence: An exploratory study of predictors in college men. Journal of Men’s Studies, 4, 59-71.

Goodman, L. A., Koss, M. P., Fitzgerald, L., Russo, N. F., & Keita, G. P. (1993). Male violence against women: Current research and future directions. American Psychologist, 48, 1054-1058.

Grauerholz, E. (1989). Sexual harassment of women professors by students: Exploring the dynamics of power, authority, and gender in a university setting. Sex Roles, 21, 789-801.

Hall, E. R., Howard, J. A., & Boezio, S. L. (1986). Tolerance of rape: a sexist or antisocial attitude. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 10, 101-118.

Hamilton, M., & Yee, J. (1990). Rape knowledge and propensity to rape. Journal of Research in Personality, 24, 111-122.

Jenkins, M. J., & Dambrot, F. H. (1987). The attribution of date rape: observer's attitudes and sexual experiences and the dating situation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17, 875-895.

Jones, M.E., Russell, R.L., & Bryant F.B. (1998). The structure of rape attitudes for men and women: A three- factor model. Journal of Research in Personality, 32, 331-350.

Kirpatrick, C., & Kanin, E. J. (1957). Male sex aggression on a university campus. American Sociological Review, 22, 52-58.

Kleinke, C. L., & Meyer, C. (1990). Evaluation of rape victim by men and women with high and low belief in a just world. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14, 343-353.

Koss, M. P. (1985). The hidden rape victim: personality, attitudinal and situational characteristics. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 193-212.

Koss, M. P., Gidycz, C. A., & Wisniewski, N. (1987). The scope of rape: incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 162-170.

Kowalski, R. M. (1992). Nonverbal behaviors and perceptions of sexual intentions: Effects of sexual connotativeness, verbal response, and rape outcome. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 13, 427-445.

Kurz, D. (1989). Social science perspectives on wife abuse: current debates and future directions. Gender and Society, 3, 489-505.

Levin-Macombie, J., & Koss, M. P. (1986). Acquaintance rape: effective avoidance strategies. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 10, 311-319.

Levine, E. M., & Kanin, E. J. (1987). Sexual violence among dates and acquaintances: Trends and their implications for marriage and family. Journal of Family Violence, 2, 55-65.

Lewin, M. (1985). Unwanted intercourse: the difficulty of saying no. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 184-192.

Linz, D. G., Donnerstein, E., & Penrod, S. (1988). Effects of long-term exposure to violent and sexually degrading depictions of women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 758-768.

Luddy, J. G., & Thompson, E. H. (1997). Masculinities and violence: A father­son comparison of gender traditionality and perceptions of heterosexual rape. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 462–477.

Malamuth, N. M. (1986). Predictors of naturalistic sexual aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 953-962.

Mills, C. S., & Granoff, B. J. (1992). Date and acquaintance rape among a sample of college students. Social Work, 37, 504-509.

Muehlenhard, C. L. (1988). Misinterpreted dating behaviors and the risk of date rape. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 6, 20-37.

Muehlenhad, C. L., Friedman, D. E., & Thomas, C. M. (1985). Is date rape justifiable? The effects of dating activity, who initiated, who paid, and men's attitudes toward women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 297-309.

Muehlenhard, C. L., & Hollabaugh, L. C. (1988). Do women sometimes say no when they mean yes? The prevalence and correlates of women's token resistance to sex. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 872-879.

Muehlenhard, C. L., Powch, I. G., Phelps, J. L., & Giusti, L. M. (1992). Definitions of rape: Scientific and political implications. Journal of Social Issues, 48 (Spring), 23-44.

Norris, J., & Cubbins, L. A. (1992). Dating, drinking, and rape: Effects of victim's and assailant's alcohol consumption on judgments of their behavior and traits. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 16, 179-191.

Payne, D.L., Lonsway, K.A., & Fitzgerald, L.F. (1998). Rape myth acceptance: Exploration of its structure and its measurement using the IRMA scale. Journal of Research in Personality, 32, 27-68.

Porter, J. F., & Critelli, J. W. (1992). Measurement of sexual aggression in college men: A methodological analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 21, 525-542.

Rosenthal, E. H., Heesacker, M., & Neimeyer, G. J. (1995). Changing the rape-supportive attitudes of traditional and nontraditional male and female college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42, 171-177.

Russell, D. E. H. (1982). Rape in marriage. New York: Macmillan.

Schult, D. G., & Schneider, L. J. (1991). The role of sexual provocativeness, rape history, and observer gender in perceptions of blame in sexual assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 6, 94-101.

Shields, N. M., & Hanneke, C. R. (1983). Battered wives' reactions to marital rape. In Gelles, R. J., Hotaling, G.T., & Straus, M. A. (eds.), The dark side of families: Current family violence research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Shotland, R. L., & Goodstein, L. (1992). Sexual precedence reduces the perceived legitimacy of sexual refusal: An examination of attributions concerning date rape and consensual sex. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 756-764.

Sigler, R. T. (1987). The criminalization of forced marital intercourse. Marriage and Family Review, 12, 71-85.

Simonson, K., & Subich, L.M. (1999). Rape perceptions as a function of gender-role traditionality and victim-perpetrator association. Sex Roles, 40, 617-634.

Struckman-Johnson, C., & Struckman-Johnson, D. (1992). Acceptance of male rape myths among college men and women. Sex Roles, 27, 85-100.

Sundberg, S. L., Barbaree, H. E., & Marshall, W. L. (1991). Victim blame and the disinhibition of sexual arousal to rape vignettes. Violence and Victims, 6, 103-120.

Syzmanski, L. A., Devlin, A. S., Chrisler, J. C., & Vyse, S. A. (1993). Gender role and attitudes toward rape in male and female college students. Sex Roles, 29, 37-57.

Taubman, S. (1986). Beyond the bravado: Sex roles and the exploitative male. Social Work, 31, 12-18.

Tetreault, P.A., & Barnett, M. A. (1987). Reactions to stranger and acquaintance rape. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 353-358.

Truman, D. M., Tokar, D. M., & Fischer, A. R. (1996). Dimensions of masculinity: Relations to date rape supportive attitudes and sexual aggression in dating situations. Journal of Counseling & Development, 74, 555-562.

Weisbuch, M., Beal, D., & O’Neil, E.C. (1999). How masculine ought I be? Men’s masculinity and aggression. Sex Roles, 40, 583-592.

Williams, L. (1984). The classic rape: when do victims report? Social Problems, 31, 459-467.

Luddy, J. G., & Thompson, E. H. (1997). Masculinities and violence: A fatherson comparison of gender traditionality and perceptions of heterosexual rape. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 462–477.