This course examines the experiences and contributions of women and their families in medieval western Europe from late antiquity to the fifteenth century. A brief look will be given in the first week to historians of medieval women from the modern period. The course will attempt to raise questions both in the field of the history of women, and in the field of feminist historical inquiry. Only a sampling of topics can be attempted during the course of the semester. Subjects we are unable to cover in class could be treated in the research paper, and I am glad to share with you what bibliographic references on medieval women I have been accumulating.

CLASS REQUIREMENTS

Attendance: We only meet once a week during the semester, so please try to avoid being absent except in case of illness. If circumstances prevent you from preparing for class, advise me in advance and attend anyway, ESPECIALLY IF YOU WERE RESPONSIBLE FOR AN INDIVIDUAL REPORT. If materials are missing from Dinand Library reserve, let me know as soon as possible.

Class format: Discussion of reading predominates. This is an advanced-level class. Students should have already gained an introductory survey-level acquaintance with medieval history, and a facility in reading, writing, and discussing history.

Grading: Midterm exam -- 25%. Research paper-- 35%. Discussion is worth 40% of the final grade and is measured in two ways: 20% of that grade is based on the student's oral reports, comments on the reading, and interaction with other students in the course; 20% of the grade is based on eight typed reports (c.2-3 pages) summarizing the main points of the common reading, noting connections between readings, and suggesting points for starting discussion, due no later than noon before our class meeting and dealing with the assignments to be discussed later that day.

Guidelines for discussion: Each week, the syllabus includes some guidelines to help your reading and discussion. These passages summarize the topics covered, address the purpose of the readings, and suggest questions and problems to raise in class. Our first week of discussion contains the fullest guidelines. Thereafter, the amount of assistance decreases as your own skills and familiarity with the course format increase.

Research paper: The research paper for this course should be at least 12-17 pages long (if using Courier New 10 or 12 font, c.3600-5000 words in any case, double-spaced, 1" margins, pages numbered). It should have proper reference apparatus, with either footnotes or endnotes in the Prucha (Research Papers in History, 4th ed.) format, and an annotated bibliography commenting on how the works you consulted contributed to the paper. Both primary and secondary sources should be used in the paper, and it should be an advancement on the survey-level paper in which five books are consulted.
You are free to choose the topic upon consultation with me, and must have submitted in writing your choice of a topic and a preliminary bibliography.

Office and contact: O'Kane 389 (793-2358; e-mail lattreed@ holycross.edu).

TOPICS

Introduction, distribution of materials, discussion of Ancestors
Women Historians and Historians of Medieval Women
Longevity, Medical Practice, and Approaches to Women's Health
Motherhood and Child-rearing
The Germanic Heritage
Women's Work
Marriage, Power, and Gender
Midterm Exam (essays in class)
Medieval Queenship: Theory and Practice
Paper Topics Due by 5 p.m.
Lovers and Other Strangers-Abelard on Heloise
Lovers and Other Strangers-Heloise on Heloise
Nuns and the Rules of Life
Rebels and Sisters, Bodies and Souls -- The Variety of Religious Experience

INTRODUCTION; ANCESTORS

Introduction of readings and assignments.
Discussion of Steven Ozment, Ancestors, pp. 1-43.

WOMEN HISTORIANS AND HISTORIANS OF MEDIEVAL WOMEN:

Eileen Power, "The Position of Women," in The Legacy of the Middle Ages, ed. G. Crump and E. F. Jacob, pp. 401-33 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1926).
Ellen Jacobs, "Eileen Power (1889-1940)," Medieval Scholarship: Biographical Studies on the Formation of a Discipline, Volume 1, History, ed. Helen Damico and Joseph B. Zavadil, pp. 219-31 (New York and London: Garland, 1995).
Norman F. Cantor, Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth Century, "Outriders: Eileen Power," pp. 381-91, and notes pp. 439-41.
Charles K. Webster, "Eileen Power (1889-1940)," The Economic Journal 50 (1940): 561-72.
Barbara A. Hanawalt, "Golden Ages for the History of Medieval English Women," in Women in Medieval History and Historiography, ed. Susan Mosher Stuard, pp. 1-24 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987).
Susan J. Leonardi, Dangerous by Degrees: Women at Oxford and the Somerville College Novelists (New Brunswick and London: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1989), pp. 13-50.
Mary Delorme, "'Facts, Not Opinions' -- Agnes Strickland," History Today (Feb. 1988), 45-50.
Speculum: A Journal of Medieval Studies 68 (April 1993): 305-8 (Partner, "Introduction"); 309-31 (Bennett, "Medievalism and Feminism").

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS:
Judith M. Bennett, "Feminism and History," Gender and History 1 (1989): 251-72.
Una Pope-Hennessy, Agnes Strickland (London: Chatto and Windus, 1940), pp. 59-69, 37-38, 88-94, 154-55, 161-62, 189-90, 235, 313-14.
Bonnie G. Smith, "Gender and the Practices of Scientific History: The Seminar and Archival Research in the Nineteenth Century," American Historical Review 100:4 (October 1995): 1150-76.

GUIDELINES:
Who studied medieval women before the professional academic historians of our own day? What challenges did such students face, particularly if they themselves were women? Our introductory week examines some pioneer figures in medieval feminist historiography, and the climates in which they worked.

We begin with the influential figure of English historian Eileen Power, already familiar to some of you from the early medieval reading "Bodo the Peasant." Her work on medieval women, including the 1926 essay "The Position of Women" we are reading, is still read, and has encouraged further research since its publication. In terms of style as well as content, what did she contribute in that essay?
What can we know about her as a person? To that end, we have biographical material from recent biographer Ellen Jacobs and medieval historian Norman Cantor, and from one memorialist, Webster. Jacobs is very straightforward; Cantor sneers at all his subjects in his book, whereas the obituary was written in loving memory of a lost colleague -- how does bias affect both these sources? Cantor saves the juiciest gossip and asides for his NOTES section; be sure to read it, and comment on how he personalized the remarks (note use of the word "imagine").
Power helped to create the school of British economic history, and was a leading figure in the early 20th-century movement to establish economic history as a respectable sub-discipline of history. In historiography, she and her husband Michael Postan are monumental figures: what can we know about them (positive or negative) as human beings? Particularly in the obituary, was Power herself characterized in a particular way because of her gender?

The Hanawalt essay examines how the history of medieval women has been studied professionally in the past century. For decades, history has been divided into the serious and professional, usually written (often unreadably) by those with academic appointments at colleges and universities; and the popular, written/presented by articulate amateurs (Barbara Tuchman, Antonia Fraser, Ken Burns). This essay examines the role of women in the former, and the increased awareness of the value of gender studies.

To provide a context for all of this reading, the Leonardi selection examines the climate of higher education in England for women who persisted in Oxford and Cambridge (Oxbridge) educations. Note the nature of that climate and the effect it would have had in fostering the training of a female professional historian. This is, after all, the context from which Eileen Power emerged. If you have ever read a Dorothy L. Sayers mystery (Lord Peter Wimsey) or the works of Vera Brittain (Testament of Youth), this selection will have special meaning.

In an attempt to trace the roots of the female/feminist historian back even further, to the 1830's, we will look at the life and work of Agnes Strickland. Strickland is often dismissed as the author of sentimental biographies of medieval queens, but she was a pioneer in many ways. From the 1830's, English medieval history gained a more professional and modern character with the organization and opening of the public archives (the Public Record Office to this day contains the primary sources of the English royal government from Domesday Book; the British Museum had just opened to the public in Strickland's day). Strickland and her sisters were some of the first people, and certainly the first women, to make use of those archives. However, many documents even today remain in private hands, in the stately homes of the nobility whose medieval ancestors created the documents. Strickland gained access to those archives, as well. How she achieved such entry is the story Delorme and Pope-Hennessy (in more detail, by an individual report) tell, as they assess Strickland's contribution to the history of medieval women.

The Bonnie Smith article, for an individual report, examines the teaching of history in the nineteenth century, under the strong influence of people like Von Ranke, and the early years of the professionalization of the craft. Try to analyze why women were unwelcome in the new field, and the implications this would have both for the teaching of women students, and teaching about women. (The section on fetishes does not seem to make much sense; skim pp. 1170-73.)

In April 1993, America's leading journal of medieval studies, Speculum, devoted an entire issue to feminist medievalist studies. I have included some excerpts from the articles in the issue to indicate how far the study of medieval women has come since Eileen Power's day. What is the difference between Power's writing and these authors? Are we better off than in 1926 (when she published "Position of Women"), and if so how? What are feminist medievalist studies? Are they the same as a history of medieval women? What do authors such as Bennett and Partner want the study of medieval women, in feminist context, to accomplish in our own day? How do they expand on what you read about the historiography of medieval women in Hanawalt and Cantor? I am also assigning, for an individual report, Judith Bennett's earlier statement on Feminism and History: how does it differ from the one in Speculum (written for a much more conservative audience)? Any ideas why?

In the coming weeks, we will have an abundance of material to study in order to become better acquainted with medieval women. Before beginning, we should investigate and appreciate the figures who laid the foundations for such study -- who, indeed, laid the groundwork for the presence of any female (medieval or modern) in places of higher learning.

LONGEVITY, MEDICAL PRACTICE, AND APPROACHES TO WOMEN'S HEALTH:

David Herlihy, "Life Expectancies for Women in Medieval Society," in The Role of Women in the Middle Ages, ed. Rosmarie Morewedge, 1-22.
Vern L. Bullough, "Female Longevity and Diet in the Middle Ages," Speculum 55 (1980): 317-25.
Vern L. Bullough, "Medieval Medical and Scientific Views of Women," Viator 4 (1973): 485-501.
Joan Cadden, "It Takes All Kinds: Sexuality and Gender Differences in Hildegard of Bingen's 'Book of Compound Medicine,'" Traditio 40 (1984): 149-74.
John F. Benton, "Trotula, Women's Problems, and the Professionalization of Medicine in the Middle Ages," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 59 (1985): 30-53.
Emilie Amt, ed., Women's Lives in Medieval Europe: A Sourcebook, pp. 98-108, "Trotula of Salerno, The Diseases of Women;" and pp. 108-12, "Univ. of Paris Records: Case of a Woman Physician 1322."
Charles T. Wood, "The Doctors' Dilemma: Sin, Salvation, and the Menstrual Cycle in Medieval Thought," Speculum 56 (1981): 710-27.
P. P. A. Biller, "Birth-Control in the West in the Thirteenth and Early Fourteenth Centuries." Past and Present, 94 (1982): 3-26. Xerox includes passage on contraception and illegitimate births from Le Roy Ladurie's Montaillou: Cathars and Catholics in a French Village 1294-1324; and Hollister textbook passage defining the Cathar heresy.

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS: PRIMARY SOURCES AND LEADING QUESTIONS --
Helen Lemay, "Women and the Literature of Obstetrics and Gynecology," in Rosenthal, ed., Medieval Women and the Sources of Medieval History, pp. 189-201.
Monica Green, "Women's Medical Practice and Health Care in Medieval Europe," Signs 14 (1989): 434-73 (skip pp. 463-68, but notes 8 and 9 are worth reading).

GUIDELINES:
Was, and is, medicine affected by gender? Is medical writing affected by gender? Are social relations influenced by ideas about the body, and about physical nature? What role did the classical heritage, especially in medicine, have on medieval health issues? Only those without a formal education in the Middle Ages would escape the classical world's influence.
Lest we think the modern world has overcome gender differences in medicine, recall that most clinical trials do not include women, and that we know very little about heart disease in women, for example, because men's experience has been primarily studied.
Unfortunately, no single study of medieval women's health and the medical practice yet exists, but the articles assigned above not only are respected and often-cited, they provide a foundation for such an investigation.

Herlihy and the 1980 Bullough article concern life expectancy rates and what affected them over many (perhaps too many) medieval centuries. Why is it important to study women's longevity rates and what do they prove? Note in particular the kinds of evidence used in the articles.
Bullough (1973) raises the question of how medical and scientific views of women affected their social treatment. At the heart of the matter is the issue of gender -- if men write the medical texts, do they perceive of women in a particular way? What about women medical writers/practitioners like Trotula (studied by Benton) and Hildegard of Bingen (studied by Cadden)-- do they bring a different perspective as women?
Benton's study of the Trotula treatises relies heavily on literary analysis of manuscripts -- why is this necessary to his argument?
To understand Benton completely, you should know the identity of Constantine the African: active 1050's to 1070's (died 1087), he was a Muslim converted to Christianity; he translated Greek, Arab and Jewish medical writings into Latin while a monk at Monte Cassino Abbey. He was extremely influential on 11th and 12th century medical writings and the transmission of eastern Mediterranean scientific knowledge to the West.
Amt provides some primary sources at this point: a selection from a Trotula manuscript, and the trial of a female physician in 14th-century Paris.
Wood and Biller write about medieval mentalities regarding medicine, women, and sexual behavior. They force us to consider what we think medieval people capable of (or too stupid and superstitious to think of), and ask us to reconsider our stereotypes. (Note: Biller's xerox contains background reading on the Cathar heresy, as well as a passage from a renowned study of contraception among the Cathars.)

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS:
Lemay: did medical writing pertaining to women's problems contain more magic and irrational elements than writing pertaining to male or general health? Was medical writing gender-oriented?
Green: this article follows Wood and Biller regarding mental outlooks and stereotypes. What are the questions Green would have us ask about women and medicine? What assumptions and stereotypes should we rid ourselves of? What will we gain if we open our minds to new evidence and new questions?

MOTHERHOOD AND CHILD-REARING:

Clarissa Atkinson, The Oldest Vocation: Christian Motherhood in the Middle Ages, chapters 1, 3, 4, 5.

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS: MOTHERING AND ITS ABSENCE --
Barbara Hanawalt, "Childrearing Among the Lower Classes of Late Medieval England," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 8 (1977): 1-22.
R. H. Helmholz, "Infanticide in the Province of Canterbury During the Fifteenth Century," History of Childhood Quarterly 2 (1974): 379-90.
Richard C. Trexler, "The Foundlings of Florence, 1395-1455," History of Childhood Quarterly 1 (1973): 259-84.

GUIDELINES:
Unlike last week, one book does exist to study the concept of motherhood in the medieval Christian context. Thus, differing viewpoints and strategies must come from the individual reports.
Atkinson studies three major themes: the interaction of Christianity and motherhood; the value placed on motherhood in medieval society; and the changes occurring over time in the relationship between the Church and the socio-biological state of motherhood (change measured from the first through fifteenth centuries, in the sections you will read). Class discussion should focus on the evidence she produces to develop those three themes (and any others you discern), and on the details of the arguments she makes.

The chapters assigned address the following issues: the early Church (to 3rd century) and the relationship of its gender concepts to those of the rest of the Mediterranean world (Ch.1); from the 5th to the 11th centuries, the influence of Church Fathers, missionaries and monks on the role of women and motherhood (Ch.3); the construction of the figure of Mary and what effect it had on real, physical motherhood (Ch. 4); the development of more emotional concepts of motherhood and family life in the 13th to 15th centuries, with concluding analysis of the relationship of motherhood to spirituality and holiness (Ch. 5).

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS:
Hanawalt: what sources does she use and what kind of information do they provide her? What is her theory about child development and the differences/similarities between medieval and modern children? What can we learn about mothers from her evidence, to add to or contradict what Atkinson tells us?
Helmholz: what are his sources, and how adequately do they tell us of mothers' and society's care for infants? What is the relationship between ecclesiastical justice and secular law?
Trexler: what do we learn about Florentine society from the establishment and fortunes of its 14th and 15th century foundling homes? Why were children brought there, and in what numbers? How did females fare compared to males? Where did wet-nurses fit in and what effect did they have on child well-being? What changes over time did Trexler notice?

THE GERMANIC HERITAGE:

COMMON READING:
Suzanne Fonay Wemple, Women in Frankish Society: Marriage and the Cloister 500-900, pp. 1-50, 189-97.
Emilie Amt, Women's Lives in Medieval Europe, pp. 29-31, 33-35, 36-44 (Funeral Eulogy; Roman laws; Tacitus; Salic Law).

GROUP I: MARRIAGE --
Wemple, Women in Frankish Society, pp. 51-123.
Peter Dronke, Women Writers of the Middle Ages, pp. 36-54 (Dhuoda).
Dhuoda, Handbook for William: A Carolingian Woman's Counsel for Her Son, trans. Carol Neel, pp. 21-38.

GROUP II: MONASTICISM --
Wemple, Women in Frankish Society, pp. 127-88.
Elizabeth A. Petroff, Medieval Women's Visionary Literature, pp. 83-86, 106-14 (Leoba).
Jane Tibbets Schulenberg, "Strict Active Enclosure and its Effects on the Female Monastic Experience (500-1100)," in Medieval Religious Women, Volume One, Distant Echoes, ed. John A. Nichols and Lillian T. Shank, pp. 51-86.

GUIDELINES:
POLITICAL BACKGROUND --
In the late Roman Empire, Gaul extended over present-day France, and parts of Belgium and Germany. The population of Gallo-Romans was a mix of Roman elements and native Celts and Germans, largely adopting Roman ways. By the 5th century, a new amalgamation with the Frankish peoples commenced, although Gallo-Roman culture remained dominant in government and culture until the late 600's.

The Frankish kings of this period, of the Merovingian dynasty, exercised decreasing control over the Gallo-Roman and Frankish elites, and over the far reaches of Gaul-Francia. By 750, one of those elite families deposed the Merovingian king and initiated the dynasty we know as Carolingian. Under Pepin (751-68), Charles the Great (768-814), and Louis the Pious (814-40), the family accomplished widespread military conquest, domination of native and conquered elites, reform of the Frankish church to bring it more in line with Rome, and patronage of art and literature. After 840, royal centralized power diminished, and elites of both West and East Frankland ignored the state and ruled independently in their own regions. Despite replacement of the Carolingian dynasty with the first Capetian kings in 987, this process of political fragmentation continued until the 12th century.

The Carolingian period, and the cultural Renaissance named after the dynasty, has always been considered a time of progress and enlightenment in the post-classical medieval world. Wemple investigates whether that judgment holds true for women as well as for men, by studying changes in marriage and monasticism during the sixth through ninth centuries.

All students will read Wemple's opening chapters on the Christian, Germanic, and Roman heritage of medieval women. The Amt collection provides a few primary sources to illustrate her points.

Group One will concentrate on Wemple's chapters on marriage, paying particular attention to changes in the status of marriage and of women under the Carolingian regime. In addition, this group will read Dronke's analysis of the writings of the late Carolingian noblewoman Dhuoda, and some passages from Dhuoda herself. Who was Dhuoda, why did she write her "Handbook for William," and what can we learn about her abilities and aspirations from the text? Dhuoda wrote the text to instill the virtues her son would need for a public life as an adult nobleman. At the same time, the writings show her faith and also her learning, which she seemed to be able to recount from memory. How does Dronke's analysis compare to what Wemple says specifically about Dhuoda, and about what she concludes in general about Carolingian women?

Group Two members will devote their time to Wemple's section on women under monasticism during the Merovingian and Carolingian periods. What changes came into effect during these years? Petroff's selection from the "Life of St. Leoba" not only tells the story of a strong woman during the "heroic" period of monasticism, but also informs us how such a woman was perceived by male scholars in the years to come. Stories about saints, martyrs, and holy men and women proved lastingly popular and inspiring over the centuries of Christian history - why? What were readers of the time supposed to gain from these histories of Christian heroes? What virtues should be discerned from them? The Schulenberg article examines some reasons for the decline of women's religious life on the Continent, specifically unrealistic expectations of strict claustration: how does this work complement Wemple's study? What can we learn about the realities of life in the Frankish cloister from Church legislation demanding certain kinds of behavior?

WOMEN'S WORK:

David Herlihy, Opera Muliebria: Women and Work in Medieval Europe, preface and chapters 1, 2, 7.
Barbara Hanawalt, The Ties that Bound: Peasant Families in Medieval England, chapters 7, 8, 9.
P. J. P. Goldberg, "Female Labour, Service and Marriage in the Late Medieval Urban North," Northern History 22 (1986): 18-38.
Judith Bennett, Women in the Medieval English Countryside: Gender and Household in Brigstock Before the Plague, pp. 18-47.
Judith Bennett, "Misogyny, Popular Culture, and Women's Work," History Workshop 31 (1991): 166-88.
Emilie Amt, ed., Women's Lives in Medieval Europe: A Sourcebook, pp. 188-92 (Coroners' Rolls); 194-97 (Parisian craft regulations); 201-5 (infractions for trade violations).

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS:
Judith Bennett, "The Village Ale-Wife: Women and Brewing in Fourteenth-Century England," in Women and Work in Preindustrial Europe, ed. B. Hanawalt, pp. 20-36.
P. J. P. Goldberg, "Women in Fifteenth-Century Town Life," pp. 116-18 only.
P. J. P. Goldberg, "The Public and The Private: Women in the Pre-Plague Economy," pp. 75-82 only.

GUIDELINES:
What was the nature of work done by women across the Middle Ages and how was it valued? What difference did the development of capitalism make? Can and should women's work be studied in a feminist context?
Herlihy provides a basic discussion of the economy of medieval Europe, and women's changing roles in it. Pay close attention to how he studies change over time, and to the variety of the sources he uses.
Hanawalt's book focuses on the English rural economy, based on coroners' records of accidental deaths and the activities that contributed to them. She argues that such records have much to tell us about the nature of women's work on the land. Such work, and public opportunities for women in the countryside, is the subject of Bennett's study. The individual report on Goldberg, "The Public and The Private," disputes the findings of both Hanawalt and Bennett (I have not assigned the passage on Bennett), by casting doubt on Hanawalt's ability to use the records accurately. Consult Amt for passages from the kind of coroners' rolls Hanawalt used, and for primary sources on women's urban experiences.
Goldberg in the common reading examines women's work in an urban setting. He also traces change over time, and connects with the next topic on marriage patterns and choices.
Bennett in The History Workshop article provides a report on research of hers in progress,** and argues that socio-economic analysis is not enough by which to understand women's work and the value society did or did not place on it. Note her use of sources, especially literary ones, and her recognition of their limitations. Assess her findings in light of Amt's primary sources concerning trade: do those sources indicate that women were particularly discriminated against or more criminal in their behavior than men?

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS:
The Bennett article assigned here, "The Village Ale-Wife," is an earlier version of the "Misogyny" work. How do the two differ? Jeremy Goldberg also writes (briefly) on ale-wives in his "Women in Town Life" study -- does he treat the topic differently from Bennett because he is a man?

** NOTE: Bennett's full-length study, Ale, Beer, and Brewsters in England (New York: Oxford University Press) was published in 1996.

MARRIAGE, POWER, AND GENDER:

David Herlihy, Medieval Households, pp. 1-4, 6-23 (Ch.1); 29-30, 43-51 (Ch.2); 56-62, 73-78 (Ch.3); 79-88, 98-111 (Ch.4); 157-59.
Georges Duby, Medieval Marriage, pp. 1-22.
Jacqueline Murray, "Individualism and Consensual Marriage: Some Evidence from Medieval England," pp. 121-51.
Judith Bennett, Women in the Medieval English Countryside: Gender and Household in Brigstock Before the Plague, pp. 3-15 (top), 100-20, 129-41.
Emilie Amt, ed., Women's Lives in Medieval Europe: A Sourcebook, pp. 79-83 (Gratian); 83-89 (Liturgy); 89-90 (Vices and Virtues).

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS:
Bennett, Women in Med. Eng. Countryside, ch. 4, 6.
Penny S. Gold, "The Marriage of Mary and Joseph in the Twelfth-Century Ideology of Marriage," in Sexual Practices and the Medieval Church, ed. Bullough and Brundage, pp. 102-17.
James A. Brundage, "The Crusader's Wife: A Canonistic Quandry," Studia Gratiana 12 (1967): 427-41; and "The Crusader's Wife Revisited," Studia Gratiana 14 (1967): 243-51.

GUIDELINES:
What was the nature of marriage in medieval Europe and how did the concept and women's experience of it change over time? Herlihy provides a basic survey of household structure with special attention paid to the marital bonds. He examines the legacies of both the Mediterranean culture and the barbarian north, noting changes in dowry and brideprice requirements and their effects on women's status. His section on the central Middle Ages, Chapter 4, should be supplemented by Duby's essay on the 11th- and 12th-century Church's impositions upon marital behavior; in fact, try to read the Duby passage when you get to page 86 of Herlihy's book. Herlihy, and the Penny Gold report, should also be supplemented by Amt's sections from Gratian, the Church liturgy, and clerical advice to the married laity.

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS:
Bennett chapters 4 and 6 examine women's public activity outside of marriage: as unmarried daughters, and as widows. How different were these experiences from the marital state?
Gold's article has much in common with Charles Wood's "The Doctor's Dilemma": both examine the impact on theology and law of that vital figure of the Christian faith, the Virgin Mary. In Gold's case, she studies how the belief in the traditionally celibate marriage of Mary and Joseph challenged canon law definitions of human marriage and the role of sex. The difference between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries' handling of this dilemma is to be noted.
Brundage also takes up the case of sex within marriage, and the problems contingent upon men leaving their wives in order to fight in the Crusades. The first part of the article deals with the wife's right to give or withhold consent to the departure of both her husband and conjugal sex from her life; the second part deals with the waiting period necessary for remarriage should the crusader be missing in action. The conflict between ideal law and social realities is the theme in both parts.

MIDTERM EXAM
Essay questions on the material assigned so far.

MEDIEVAL QUEENSHIP: THEORY AND PRACTICE:

THEORY (common reading):
John Carmi Parsons, "Family, Sex, and Power: The Rhythms of Medieval Queenship," in Medieval Queenship, ed. J. C. Parsons, pp. 1-11.
Betty Bandel, "The English Chroniclers' Attitude Toward Women," Journal of the History of Ideas, 16 (1955), 113-18.
Lois L. Huneycutt, "Female Succession and the Language of Power in the Writings of Twelfth-Century Churchmen," in Medieval Queenship, pp. 189-201.
Charles T. Wood, "Queens, Queans, and Kingship: An Inquiry into Theories of Royal Legitimacy in Late Medieval England and France," in Order and Innovation in the Middle Ages, ed. William Jordan et al., Princeton Univ. Press, 1976, pp. 385-400.
J. C. Parsons, "Eleanor of Castile (1241-1290): Legend and Reality through Seven Centuries," in Eleanor of Castile 1290-1990: Queen and Society in Thirteenth-Century England, ed. J. C. Parsons, Macmillan, 1995, pp. 23-54.
Anne Crawford, "The King's Burden?: The Consequences of Royal Marriage in Fifteenth-Cent. England," in Patronage The Crown and the Provinces, ed. Ralph Griffiths, pp. 33-56.

PRACTICE (individual reports):
Pauline Stafford, "The King's Wife in Wessex 800-1066," Past and Present 90 (1981): 3-27.
Bernard Hamilton, "Women in the Crusader States: The Queens of Jerusalem 1100-90," in Derek Baker, ed., Medieval Women, 143-74.
Elizabeth A. R. Brown, "Eleanor of Aquitaine: Parent, Queen, and Duchess," in Eleanor of Aquitaine: Patron and Politician, ed. William Kibler, pp. 9-34.
Rachel Gibbons, "Isabeau of Bavaria Queen of France (1385-1422): The Creation of an Historical Villainess," TRHS 6th ser. 6 (1996): 51-74.

GUIDELINES:
The queen was the most visible female in medieval society. What expectations did society have of the queen? What happened if a queen failed to live within those expectations? How did her powers and her influence compare to that of a man? How did they change over time? Under what moral strictures did she live, as the nation's embodiment of virtue and piety? How were her actions and her ideals expressed by the men, often clergymen, who wrote histories or set down the information from which history is written?
Parsons has written extensively on queenship, focusing on Edward I's queen, Eleanor of Castile. Here, he introduces a collection of essays and indicates the important context of family and behavior.
Bandel's article is the classic statement of the concept of gender and its appearance in medieval culture. It is often cited as a foundation study for later works on women's history. Define its argument and the sources from which she derives it.
Huneycutt examines how medieval writers, mostly clergymen, reacted to women of authority and influence in their societies. She studies these characterizations through the context of inheritance and family structure, and much of what was read last week in Duby and Herlihy will be useful in discerning her argument.
In the Wood article, by the early 14th century, what role did queens have in passing on legitimate power, and what was expected of them morally? Does Wood have a particular attitude towards women in this article? No student who has read it has failed to mention his tone or point of view.
Parsons on Eleanor of Castile and Crawford on fifteenth-century English queens provide a bridge between the theoretical works in this section, and the readings on specific queens handled through individual reports. Parsons looks at the historiography that has shaped our perceptions of queens like Eleanor, then focuses closely on the queen herself and the difficulties she had in living up to societal expectations, particularly of the queen's public role. Note also his examination of how different kinds of primary sources give us different judgments on queenly behavior. Crawford also examines societal expectations, and delineates very carefully what was expected, especially in the private role. How easy was it for a queen to fulfill all the roles demanded of her?

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS:
Stafford studies changes in Anglo-Saxon society that affected the earliest English queens, rising from obscurity to a more public image. How did marriage practices influence the role of the queen? Inheritance of the throne was still in flux in Old English kingdoms; this also affected the position of the king's wife, as did diplomatic needs of state. What other factors prevailed?
Hamilton examines female rulers in the feudal state of Crusader Jerusalem, focusing on Melisende, daughter of Baldwin I (1100-31). Although also a wife and mother of a future king, Melisende wielded power in her own right. How did she accomplish this, and to what extent was she an independent ruler? How did the Church help her?
Brown looks at the best-known medieval queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, ruler first of France as wife of Louis VII, then queen of England as Henry II's consort. What can we learn about her relations with her parents and grandfather? What public talents did she possess? What private influence did she wield?
Gibbons presents a new look at a traditionally vilified queen of France, Isabeau of Bavaria, wife to Charles VI. How does she rescue Isabeau's reputation? The queen refused to be a victim of the extraordinary circumstances of fifteenth-century France during the Hundred Years' War: did this affect her image?

LOVERS AND OTHER STRANGERS - ABELARD ON HELOISE
C. W. Hollister, Medieval Europe: A Short History, 8th ed. pp. 293-305.
Betty Radice, "The French Scholar-Lover Heloise," in Medieval Women Writers, ed. K. M. Wilson, pp. 90-100.
The Letters of Abelard and Heloise, trans. Betty Radice, pp. 9-22, 57-94, 270-71.
M. T. Clanchy, Abelard: A Medieval Life, ch. 8, pp. 149-61; ch. 9, pp. 173-77, 183-201.

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS:
Mary McLaughlin, "Abelard as Autobiographer," Speculum 42 (1967): 463-88.
Mary McLaughlin, "Abelard and the Dignity of Women," in Pierre Abélard, Pierre le Vénérable (Paris, 1975), pp. 287-333.

GUIDELINES:
Heloise has long been noted for her intelligence, her honesty, and the feelings for which she was absolutely unapologetic. We will study her life and writings in two different ways. During the first week, we will read the autobiography of her husband, Peter Abelard, keeping in mind that that is HIS autobiography, told from HIS point of view. Next week, we will compare what he tells us of their relationship with her viewpoint expressed in their exchange of letters written after they took religious vows.
The Hollister Western Civilization textbook provides those without background in medieval history an explanation of the rise of universities in the twelfth century, and Abelard's place among the vibrant philosophers of his day. The brief Radice biography in the Wilson book provides a fine overview to the lives and the letters, and complements the introduction to her translation of the autobiography. Clanchy's new biography presses the analysis further.

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS:
Mary McLaughlin has spent most of her career examining Abelard and Heloise. Her study of the autobiography raises significant questions about the nature of the genre and why Abelard turned to it. Her article on Abelard's view of women, and what influence Heloise might have been on it, rests on Letter 6 in the Radice collection. It is not necessary to read it to understand the article, but know that in it, Abelard was responding to Heloise's request that he redesign the rules for nuns and convents. We will read her letter of request (Letter 5) next week.

LOVERS AND OTHER STRANGERS - HELOISE ON HELOISE
The Letters of Abelard and Heloise, trans. Betty Radice, pp. 109-79.
Michael T. Clanchy, Abelard: A Medieval Life, ch. 8, pp. 161-72; ch. 9, pp. 177-83.
Barbara Newman, "Authority, authenticity, and the repression of Heloise," Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 22 (1992): 121-57.
Linda Georgianna, "Any Corner of Heaven: Heloise's Critique of Monasticism," Mediaeval Studies 49 (1987):221-53.

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS:
Elizabeth Freeman, "The public and private functions of Heloise's letters," Journal of Medieval History 23 (1997): 15-28.
Peggy McCracken, "The Curse of Eve: Female Bodies and Christian Bodies in Heloise's Third Lettter," in Listening to Heloise: The Voice of a Twelfth-Century Woman, ed. Bonnie Wheeler, pp. 217-31.

GUIDELINES:
Our reading in the Radice translation continues, with the letter exchange between Heloise and Abelard, occasions on which Heloise wrote frankly of her faults, longings, and aspirations.
Clanchy continues his analysis of Abelard, but with more focus on Heloise.
Newman addresses a continuing controversy: many scholars do not believe Heloise could have written the letters attributed to her. The author of the article studies the likelihood of a forgery, and examines what it means to deny Heloise the authorship of the writings.
Georgianna takes Heloise's analysis of female monasticism, and her critique of its failings, very seriously. What were Heloise's suggestions for change? What was her attitude towards her own salvation after a lifetime of dedication to monasticism? Her article studies Letter 5, pp. 159-79 (Radice translation) very carefully, so give that letter your full attention.

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS:
Freeman has the reader ask some basic questions about the function of letter writing in the Middle Ages. How did letters differ then from our own concept of them now (or of e-mail!)?
McCracken continues (as did Georgianna) to look at Heloise's third letter (Letter 5 in Radice), and examines the bodily references in it. Heloise grounded her arguments in the physical and demanded a place for it in the revised rule for nuns she was asking Abelard in this letter to write for the Paraclete.

NUNS AND THE RULES OF LIFE:

Penelope D. Johnson, Equal in Monastic Profession, chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 8.
Emilie Amt, ed., Women's Lives in Medieval Europe: A Sourcebook, pp. 221-31, "Caesarius of Arles: Rule for Nuns (ca. 512-534); pp. 245-52, "Eudes [Archbishop] of Rouen: Visitations of Nunneries (13th c.)."
Theodore Evergates, ed., Feudal Society in Medieval France: Documents from the County of Champagne, pp. 132-34.

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS:
Johnson, Equal in Monastic Profession, chapters 6, 7.
Penny S. Gold, "The Charters of Le Ronceray D'Angers: Male/Female Interaction in Monastic Business," in Rosenthal, Medieval Women and the Sources of Medieval History, pp. 122-30.

GUIDELINES:
Johnson's study combines modern issues of gender relations and societal context with sensitive respect for the words and feelings of medieval religious women. In reading the book, concentrate on the questions we can ask of such women's experience, their self-identity, and their position within medieval society. We will apply many of these questions to the readings the following week.

Topics to note in the Johnson book: the history of women in monastic life (Amt's passage from Caesarius is useful here), Johnson's sources, and the time frame she uses (Ch. 1). Family relations with convents and nuns; patterns of foundation and patronage; belief in nuns' spiritual efficacy; dowries and the economic status of convents; motivations to enter; benefits to the community (Ch. 2). The role of the bishop; Eudes' Register 1248-69 and its role in Johnson's book (a passage from it is included in the Amt reading: did she use it well and accurately?); relations with heads of orders; vulnerability of female houses (Ch. 3). Nature of the vows, how faithfully kept; growing role of priests; sexual misconduct; liturgy; changes in claustration (Ch. 4). Societal changes 12th and 13th centuries, and effects on nuns' lives; nature of the case Johnson makes for increasingly negative views of women and nuns by the 13th century (Ch. 8).
Evergates' primary sources help to determine what the nuns actually did in their protest against the church of Saint-Urbain of Troyes. How did Pope Clement IV describe them?

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS:
Johnson: Chapter 6, concentrate on the nature of the financial dealings and activities of the women. What were typical transactions? How do they compare to male houses and their economic levels? Chapter 7, determine how nuns viewed themselves and their roles, and compare it to the ways in which society viewed them. Was there change over time? What is the role of gender?
Gold: Are the comments and reservations she makes in this article useful when reading Johnson and when assessing the judgments the latter makes and the conclusions she draws?

REBELS AND SISTERS, BODIES AND SOULS -- THE VARIETY OF RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE:

C. W. Hollister, Medieval Europe: A Short History, 8th ed., pp. 206-214 (Church in the High Middle Ages), 217-24 (Dominicans and Franciscans).
C. H. Talbot, Life of Christina of Markyate: A Twelfth-Century Recluse, pp.14-15, 35-151 (English only, c.60pp.).
Christopher J. Holdsworth, "Christina of Markyate," in Medieval Women, ed. Derek Baker, pp. 185-89, 195-204.
Regis Armstrong and Ignatius Brady, eds., Francis and Clare: The Complete Works, pp. 169-85, 209-25.
Elizabeth Petroff, in "A Medieval Woman's Utopian Vision: The Rule of St. Clare," in Body and Soul: Essays on Medieval Women and Mysticism, pp. 66-79.

INDIVIDUAL REPORTS:
Joyce E. Salisbury, "Fruitful in Singleness," Journal of Medieval History 8 (1982): 97-106.
Michel Mollat, The Poor in the Middle Ages, pp. 104-6, 112-13, 119-25.
Patricia Ranft, "An overturned victory: Clare of Assisi and the 13th Church," Journal of Medieval History 17 (1991): 123-34.

GUIDELINES:
The readings this week focus on the voices of two remarkable, though probably not typical, religious women during the critical twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
After a brief survey in the Hollister text of twelfth- and thirteenth-century religious movement, the first individual voice we will examine is that of Englishwoman Christina of Markyate. The Talbot passages are translated and selected from a near-contemporary account of Christina's life; the Holdsworth article places Christina in the context of an Anglo-Saxon minority society after the Norman Conquest. Virginity was an important attribute to Christina: the power of virginity is traced in the individual report on Salisbury.
The second individual voice to be studied is that of St. Clare, follower of St. Francis of Assisi and in some respects the person who most accurately fulfilled his vision. The Petroff reading focuses on the Rule Clare composed for the strict order of nuns she inspired; we will read the Rule itself in the Armstrong & Brady collection. The individual report on Ranft examines Clare's struggles with the papacy over the issues of poverty and enclosure, and decides what was important to her. The other individual report, on Mollat, provides some background on changing reactions to poverty and the poor in medieval society.

RESEARCH PAPER (2 COPIES) DUE BY 5 P.M.

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